He really epitomizes what skateboarding is about—a tuly individual approach to his environment. Kind of the way Neil Blender rode in the 80s. The most overrated? Skateboarding itself has been culturally underrated my whole life. The most underestimated? Andy Anderson authenticandyanderson , though the Olympics sort of changed that. What is the night you spent the most money to have fun? No idea. May have picked up a dinner tab in New York with family and friends.
That and a hotel room is easily four figures. Depends on my mood. At this moment, Aleksandr Rodchenko. If you could choose which historical era to live in, which would you choose? Petersburg, Russia. Spent a chunk of the 90s walking that city and imagining what life was like back then. Would have been even more amazing before the automobile. If you could spend a day with an historical figure who would you choose?
Abe Lincoln. Boring choice, maybe, but he took on the racist South when no one else would. We have a lot more work to do there, unfortunately. Who are the people that inspired you the most? My family. And my parents—they were born in villages in Yugoslavia and came to the U. They finished college and my dad ended up teaching American History to native-born kids. My dad grew up in Detroit in the s. What do you think is the hardest trick to do with skateboard in your opinion?
The obvious answer is anything that Rodney Mullen rodneymullen does, because only Rodney Mullen can do those tricks. For a reason.
What makes one skateboarder better than another? The best skaters are the ones who skate from the inside out. Skaters who mimic what they see in videos are mimes, not skaters. Skateboarding is an expression, not a series of actions you copy from someone else. We take inspiration from one-another, but our expression of a trick is individual to the point that it may not even resemble the same trick. What is the best trick you have ever done?
I was trying to learn them at Del Mar once, in the keyhole pool. The Godoy twins were there, and gave me some tips. I made the next one, hand on tile. Can you tell us a trick someone else has done that you wish you could do too? Backside and frontside ollies in a pool. I would love to feel that floating sensation over a transition. What is the thing you like most about Italy? Lazio and their racist Ultra fans.
But Dejan Savicevic is a friend of our family, so I support Milan. Where have you been on vacation when you were young? Where are you going on vacation now? A long weekend here and there. Do you think it would be correct to create a place where man can live in the state of nature, making him free from a choice of social belonging that is instead taken for granted?
I think most people need order. Most of us find comfort in the limited choice we get in modern society. Freedom from choice is what you want. Why skateboarding is important and why communities should embrace it. I could talk all day about the ways skateboarding benefits youth. Have you ever had a homosexual experience? Had a few dudes ask over the years, but politely declined.
Where do you live? San Diego, California. Which neighbourhood? Clairemont, about a mile from the Clairemont Skatepark , and also a mile from the Linda Vista Skatepark. Also grew up in Cupertino—my school was a block from the original Apple Computers office. My family lived in Yugoslavia for a couple years when I was a toddler.
And I moved to Russia for about a year after college. Which are your favorite places in your city? The skateparks, the dog park by the bay, and The Casbah our local music venue. Favorite movies? Favorite songs? If you can choose 5 celebrities to have party with who they would be? The material good you most desire and envy? Less is more. So, intellect would be nice. In other words, a RAM upgrade. As a photographer, if you had the chance to document an historical event, which one would it be?
The human struggle that ultimately leads to victory or survival, I believe, reveals the essence of life. The best photographer in history in your opinion? Cartier-Bresson, no question. He knew where to stand, where to point the camera, and exactly when to capture the image. Which means the camera had to be set and ready. None had the instinct of Cartier-Bresson, which is the critical characteristic of all great photographers today. Cartier-Bresson was the first modern photographer. If you had the possibility to remove social networks from the world, would you delete them?
Now that we know what we know? Write a fucking letter. And what about globalisation? People and stuff should move around less. Huge container ships floating around the world full of crap needs to stop. Use less shit, use local shit. Watching the cross-town derby between FK Partizan vs. Red Star Belgrade in Yugoslavia in There was a 4-meter fence and a moat around the field, but the fans still invaded the pitch.
Absolutely insane atmosphere. What do you think about influencers? I get upset when I see my daughter watching some of that stuff. Do you believe in some religions? Life is the process of learning our place in the universe, and thereby becoming closer to God. God is not a religion. No one can define that for you.
For sure not some English monarch in the Middle Ages selectively translating an ancient scroll. Give me a fucking break. Learn to read the Dead Sea Scrolls in their vernacular, and maybe we have something to talk about. Turn my phone off. The richest person you know? Not sure.
Favorite fashion brand? Not a fan of haute couture. But I appreciate Tommy Hilfiger. He was watching a skate session once, and when some thugs attacked the skaters, he jumped in and started swinging at the thugs. And what about beauty? Beauty is a quality that comes from within. You sense it, not see it. Everyone has the ability to be beautiful.
And intelligence? I like people for the choices they make, not what they are born with. There are lots of intelligent assholes out there. I have huge respect for the intelligent people I know who use it to help lift other people. They choose to be generous and share their gift. Clearly not Ed Templeton. The most precious material thing you own? Family photo album from when I was a kid. What do you usually drink at the bar? Local beer, wherever I happen to be. Draft, if possible.
An advice you can give to someone that want to do your job? Yeah, scram—I got this. Do you know someone being a real racist? You can confront their biggotry in stages instead of making a huge scene and backing them into a corner. That usually just cements their position. First step is to get them to turn off the Fox News. What do you think about the existence of royal rulers for birthright? I say that even though I have the crest of the last king of Montenegro tattooed on my arm.
Montenegro is the part of the former Yugoslavia that my family comes from—members of my family were flag bearers in the Montenegrin Royal Army for over years. I think the Netflix series, The Crown, does a good job of depicting why birthright is crap. What drugs have you done?
Smoked a few joints in the 80s. Thought it was dumb. Then I heard Minor Threat and found my tribe. Was Straight Edge until I was Are you in favour of the liberalisation of soft drugs? I have a pretty sharp bullshit detector. I can smell a rat. Whatever the latest thing is. Spent a few hundred bucks on some cycling shoes once. They lasted me a few years and thousands of miles of riding, so probably a good investment. Can you tell us a number from 1 to 89? Tool use is the classic example.
When a blind cane user touches the edge of a building in order to orient himself and turn in the right direction, they say the cane becomes part of his body, as if his own fingers were sampling the environment.
Now, consider a joint action like cycling together in a tandem bike. These are two ways of extending the mind, by means of tool use, in the former case, and by means of coordination with a conspecific, in the latter.
Both are relevant for music. Whatever the philosophical arguments to include such extensions in the computational machinery of the mind, the previous phenomena tool use in particular have been thoroughly investigated in recent cognitive neuroscience and will be briefly presented in what follows. Although philosophers have pointed also at memory and thought, neuroscience has focused mainly on body and peri-personal space perception. Rizzolatti et al. Insofar as such neurons are body-part centered, codifying for the space of and around the hand, the head or the torso, they may be considered as the neural correlates of the body space the proprioceptive and tactile space and the peri-personal space the multisensory space reachable by the arms.
Therefore, body ownership, the feeling that a body part is owned by a given subject, turns out to be modulated by the position, shape, and movement of the fake hand. Similarly, peri-personal space has been shown to be a plastic phenomenon. Iriki et al.
In other words, while before practicing with tools such neurons discharged only when a stimulus appeared close to the hand or the shoulder or touched them, after practicing they discharged also for stimuli appearing in the far space, as far as the rake length. Such a remapping of a near space that becomes far has its equivalent in humans.
For example, patients suffering from visual neglect after a stroke showed a dissociation of the near and the far space, with the neglect appearing only in the former, as assessed by means of a line bisection task. Soliman et al. Contrary to the solo condition, during the joint condition the incongruity e. Taking advantage of a different MSI paradigm, Teneggi et al. Indeed, after the cooperative condition, subjects reacted faster to a tactile stimulus on their hands, not only when an auditory stimulus was heard close to them, but also when the sound came from a further distance, close to the cooperative partner see Canzoneri et al.
Since a response to a tactile stimulus is facilitated by an auditory stimulus in the peri-personal space, thanks to the above-mentioned bimodal neurons, this result is taken as evidence that the peri-personal space got extended, after the cooperative interaction.
However, in order to set the stage for our theoretical proposal and for each of our single experiments, we need to consider the predictive coding approach and how the embodied issues just discussed translate into musical terms. According to the predictive framework, the brain is in charge of making sense of the external world by minimizing the error resulting from the comparison between a prediction of the causes of a sensory state and such a state. Suppose that such a state is to perceive someone grasping a scalpel Kilner et al.
The brain might use its knowledge of the context say, a hospital as a prior to be compared with the observed action, hypothesizing that the scalpel has been grasped to cure a given patient.
On the contrary, a smaller error would be forwarded, if the scalpel would be put in a sterilization box, and no error at all would be forwarded, if the scalpel would be really used to operate the patient. In any case, the prediction error would allow updating the priors that, once updated, become posteriors in a continuous, circular process of sensorimotor-based predictions. A model of music according to predictive coding principles has been recently put forward by Koelsch et al.
In other words, moving to the music helps disambiguate some of its features by means of an embodied prediction that may be depicted in Bayesian terms. After reviewing some relevant literature about embodied music cognition, we will come back to these concepts in order to integrate them in a single, encompassing framework revolving around the idea of music as embodied language.
A disembodied view typically conceives of music cognition as a computational reconstruction of the hierarchical organization of music in a recursive way, from the basic acoustic stimuli to the wide formal structure of a given composition, much like a generative grammar view on language cognition Lerdahl and Jackendoff, Embodied music cognition, on the contrary, takes advantage of the above-mentioned sensorimotor loops as a crucial feature of brain functioning to highlight the role of the body in music perception and production Leman, This is substantiated by studies in synchronization and entrainment, in disambiguation and in outsourcing of timing Maes, Firstly, consider entrainment, the phenomenon that brings a body rhythm to synchronize to a music rhythm Clayton, ; Phillips-Silver and Keller, ; Moens and Leman, Iyer emphasizes that music may evoke different human actions according to its tempo, like breathing, walking and speaking with frequencies, respectively, between 0,1 and 1 HZ, between 1 and 3 HZ, between 3 and 10 HZ , but the other way around is also true.
Indeed, much existing music compositions lie in this tempo range, suggesting that bodily resonators have somehow modeled the way humans create music van Noorden and Moelants, Secondly, movement can also disambiguate a metric structure. In a couple of experiments Phillips-Silver and Trainor let infants be passively bounced or adults bend their knees to an ambiguous rhythmic pattern.
However, musicians can also rely on their internal clock to understand the sequence even without moving, thus demonstrating the importance of body movement, in particular where expertise is absent. In addition, it is worthwhile to remind that mirror neurons have been shown to depend also on such a sensorimotor expertise.
In other words, through a repertoire of motor actions both transitive and intransitive, i. Indeed, the mediation between the mental and the physical occurs at a conscious level of processing, typically involved with reflective meaning-formation, whereas much processing can be conceived of in a strictly sensorimotor way, suspending any commitment about the nature of what the body is assumed to mediate. Consider again the disambiguation process allowed by moving a body part according to either a binary or a ternary meter on an isochronous pulse.
There is no need to attribute physical properties to the sound beats we hear and, on the other hand, mental properties to our subjective experience to the extent that the perception of those sounds is coupled to the body movements necessary to disambiguate them.
What counts for an embodied approach to music cognition is that exactly such sensorimotor loops, rather than abstract computations, constitutes music cognition.
Importantly, the sensorimotor mechanism we are dealing with here is twofold. On the one hand, it concerns body morphology, the fact that the human body allows for different actions from other animal bodies, for example, as we saw above, synchronizing around specific frequency ranges, according to the motor action involved.
On the other hand, sensorimotor mechanisms have a specific neural counterpart, well represented by the mirror network in both humans and monkeys Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, and below. Mirror neurons further clarify how multi-person music interactions can be understood as embodied processing that cannot be reduced to internal processes of mindreading or simulation of interacting brains Thompson and Varela, Note that, if these persons were asked to repeat that action many times, they would likely do it every time in a slightly different manner, thus making it evident that a slightly different dynamics of mutual adjustment unfolded, though resulting in the same outcome passing through the door.
If we apply this scenario to an ensemble music context, some features may emerge that are tightly related to the temporal connection of bodies and sound relationships in spaces. In Walton et al. Thanks to cross wavelet transform CWT , the time series of these movements revealed different periodicities, according to the features of the musical track. The authors drew the conclusion that expressive interactions are guided not only by brain processes, but also by bodily dynamics emerging on the fly, in accordance with one of the tenets of the embodied approach to cognition see also Walton et al.
In the last decade, a number of studies have investigated the neural circuits that enable musical joint action. Evidence for the involvement of M1 in action observation was provided by Fadiga et al. At least two studies have corroborated such finding in the ensemble music domain. In the first study, Novembre et al. In a second study, Novembre et al. When asked to adapt the tempo of their right hand to the gradually changing tempo of the left hand played by a partner, after double-pulse TMS on left hand M1, the latter group showed higher accuracy than the former.
That is, double-pulse TMS disturbed only those processes relying on the sensorimotor simulation of the rehearsed part played by the partner, a mechanism that is clearly recruited in the real-time coordination of actions generated by the self and the partner. Given the fact that musicality refers to the biological component, it can be expected that we find sensorimotor mechanisms like the ones just described also in non-musicians.
For example, Gordon et al. The authors conclude that sensorimotor predictive models are here at stake, rather than simulation-like mechanisms, given that only the violation of the expected sensory outcome caused an increase in cortico-spinal excitability.
On the other hand, if non-musicians are trained to execute simple melodies at the piano, when listening to those melodies their FDI cortico-spinal excitability increases even some milliseconds before the tone onset, thus showing the difference a motor training makes, compared to simply listening Stephan et al.
This finding is consistent with Candidi et al. Again, these findings can be interpreted as sensorimotor processes that support an embodied approach to music processing in combination with a Bayesian predictive processing approach see next paragraph. Multimodal sensorimotor neurons are likely the substrate of such processes, in particular in areas like STG and STS, which respond more strongly to auditory-visual stimuli than to auditory or visual stimuli separately Beauchamp et al.
However, as we hinted at above, interactive brain research methods are paving the way to overcome some of the constraints that characterized social neuroscience since the mirror neurons discovery. A pioneering study has been Babiloni et al. The above theoretical strands, based on embodiment and predictive processing, should be complemented by an emotional-motivational layer that involves reward outcomes Salimpoor et al.
As such, every kind of interaction with music be it listening or playing, be it alone or in group can be understood as constituted by a cognitive-motivational loop that realizes reward and empowerment in the subjects involved in it. Figure 1. The interaction-reward hypothesis Leman, states that a rewarding interaction with music through entrainment and alignment is based on physical effort, cognitive control, and expressive gesturing that match with arousal, agency, and pro-social values.
We will see in a moment whether and how this model could be integrated with Keller et al. In everyday life it is an implicit feeling, which becomes manifest if something goes wrong, as when you are on the point of pressing a light switch, but the light turns on the instant before you press it: it is not you, who turned on the light, but someone else, hence a weak or totally absent sense of agency.
On the other hand, being probably built on the prediction of our action consequences, rather than on their real sensory consequences Berti and Pia, , an illusory sense of agency may also ensue. Such a feeling would be consciously illusory in cases of moving to the music without playing it, as in running, dancing, or even simply tapping to the music, but it would be veridical whenever we are really playing the music.
Nevertheless, in both cases a rewarding and empowering effect might ensue, due also to a pro-social element valence that at least partly explains the expressive power of musical interactions. This idea is consistent with accounts that emphasize the capacity music exhibits of making persons being Overy and Molnar-Szakacs, or keeping McNeill, ; Hove and Risen, together in time, developing a joint sense of agency, a concept on which the philosopher Pacherie has recently investigated see below.
Arguably, what is still missing from such a theory as from many other proposals in the neuroscience and musicology literature is a more detailed characterization of the relationship between expressive quality and pro-social aspects in musical interaction. Not surprisingly, these authors invoke the recruitment of the mirror neurons network as the neural implementation of such experiences with music.
Precisely the idea that a person is lurking behind a musical sound leads to the possibility to conceive of music as an embodied language.
Unlike natural language, music allows to coordinate in real time behaviors of big size groups, as epitomized in stadium choirs or in war and work songs, and it is well known, particularly in ethnological studies, how such behaviors enhance collective identities, that is, cultural membership Freeman, ; Nettl, ; Clarke et al.
If biological traits of musicality underlying music are likely met in tonal encoding of pitch, beat perception and metrical encoding of rhythm Honing et al. Therefore, we may expect to find these traits uniformly distributed among humans, no matter how musically expert they are, representing the prerequisites for musical expertise, rather than its outcome Mehr et al.
These processes may somehow characterize every kind of joint action Vesper et al. Phase and period correction are two mechanisms put forward to explain such competences Repp and Su, Keller and Appel demonstrated, for example, that the most synchronized among a few piano duets were those formed by pianists with higher imagery vividness in a task of notes continuation without auditory feedback.
The predictive coding approach seems able to unify all the previous three aspects, since music is endowed with an intrinsically hierarchical structure from both the melodic cells within phrases within sections and rhythmic beats within cells within meters viewpoint, that Bayesian inference can suitably tackle Salimpoor et al.
Moreover, also musical interaction can profit from such a framework. Indeed, the sensorimotor loops necessary for an individual action to take place, predicting the outcome of a given action and adjusting it in case of wrong sensory feedback, can be translated into social terms Wolpert et al. In a musical context, let this action be the attack of the theme after seven introductory measures of the jazz standard Autumn Leaves. After playing the first two notes in the eight measure the soloist realizes that neither the bass nor the piano changed the chord leading to the real first measure of the tune, therefore he adjusts his trajectory, turning those two notes in a sort of ornament preceding the theme, whose beginning is postponed for a measure.
It is worthwhile to stress that such processes need not be fully aware, since internal models are supposed to work in a nested hierarchy, from very low levels close to reflexes to conscious levels very close to propositional thought, see Friston and Frith, The concept of music and musicality as an embodied language around which the present work revolves can now be summarized by means of a diagram Figure 2.
The ambition of such a framework would be to integrate predictive coding and embodied approaches e. The new framework involves three components necessary to play music together. A second component involves agency as a consequence of embodied sensorimotor predictions.
A third component involves arousal as an ensuing feature. Figure 2. A framework of music as embodied language. The crucial role is played by joint agency, which is a consequence of the sensorimotor prediction device, along with arousal both arousal and joint agency are expected to cause rewarding effects.
Some experimental evidence concerning, for example, tapping, jazz, hocket, and tool use can be interpreted according to this framework see below. Joint agency is how we see agency in a musical context. Indeed, given the pro-social value of musicality and, then, of music as an embodied language Wiltermuth and Heath, ; Kokal et al.
The weak version of this framework is easily applied to a real ensemble performance as the dyadic interactions we are going to explore in the following experiments, but a stronger version would identify a social component also in individual interactions with music. Indeed, if music and, before it, musicality is the bio-cultural product of social interactions, it might be argued that a track of its social origin is always present, regardless of the kind of musical interaction at stake.
The most obvious example is ensemble music, but we may draw a scale of decreasingly evident presence of another agent in listening to music less, if it is live music, more, if it is not and, eventually, in playing alone.
From this point of view, playing alone may be compared to speaking alone, either when rehearsing a monolog or when thinking aloud. As for the third component of the network, we simply consider the following aspects. An experiment such as Fritz et al. Moreover, the motivating force of music has been shown in several experiments investigating walking speed to music compared to metronome Styns et al. In all these cases a transfer of sonic energy to motor energy seems to be happened see also Tarr et al.
Three of our own experiments described in the next sections provide evidence for, and can be interpreted in the given framework. They have a focus on the time, the space and the quality of the musical interaction, respectively. In a first experiment, we show that also non-musicians may proto-musically communicate. We investigated the timing of their joint tapping and whether and how it is modulated by the position of the partner with the relative cortico-spinal activation measured by means of single-pulse TMS.
Finally, in the last experiment, we explicitly focus on the concept of joint agency in hocket dyads, correlating such subjective parameter with an objective and dynamic measure of their timing quality, devised according to Bayesian principles.
An easy way to investigate mutual adaptive timing is tapping, a proto-musical motor action allowing also non-musicians to align a body part movement to the beat of the music. Under the assumption of an innate musicality, similarly to Konvalinka et al.
Given a regular reference, we used the correlation of asynchronies as a method to measure entrainment. We expected to see higher cortico-spinal excitability in condition ii , compared to condition i and iii , due to mirror mechanisms that the shared action should activate.
The results of our experiment show that timing is mutually adaptive in condition ii and iii , but not in i. In addition, there is a difference in ownership between ii and iii because in the latter condition the alien hand is felt as the own hand, with a feeling of agency over the tapping. In condition iii , when the subject embodies an alien hand, cortico-spinal excitability tends to decrease, compared to condition ii when there is a partner in front Schutz-Bosbach et al.
On the contrary, when the partner tapped in front of the partner, the sociality of the context brought about higher cortico-spinal excitability, in accordance also with the mirror neurons literature Fadiga et al.
Figure 3. The allocentric condition induces higher cortico-spinal activation than but comparable joint-correlation of asynchronies to the egocentric condition, resulting in the better condition for joint agency. As mentioned, the peripersonal space, which is the multisensory body-part-centered representation of the space immediately surrounding the body, has been recently shown to be sensitive not only to tool use Iriki et al.
In particular, peripersonal space has been shown to extend after a cooperative economic exchange compared to an uncooperative economic exchange Teneggi et al. In order to measure peripersonal space after the two experimental conditions the cooperative and the uncooperative harmonic condition we borrowed an audio-tactile integration task devised by Serino et al.
A far sound is thereby influenced by what is subjectively experienced as far. We interpreted this result as evidence that, insofar as music and musicality are intrinsically social embodied languages, a musical interaction has a measurable impact on the perception of the space between two or more subjects.
The paradigm allowed us also to compare our sample of musicians with a sample of non-musicians. Figure 4. In any case, we may conclude that the joint sense of agency was corrupted by the uncooperative partner. The experiments described so far, although concerning musical interaction, are focused on an event-based analysis approach. While the main part of studies on timing in pairs of musicians have used some form of correlation of asynchronies or mean signed asynchronies Goebl and Palmer, ; Clayton et al.
Here we tried to develop a method that could cope with the intrinsic variability of human behavior over time, regardless of a fixed reference.
In fact, given the alternate nature of hocket singing, the reference is latently available as an emerging tempo that can possibly change over time. To account for interaction, we chose the inter-onset intervals between any two notes coming from two notes sang by two singers in sequence and computed in Bayesian terms a duration error, relative to the time-varying latent tempo that we used as predictor for the duration.
This approach, where the latent tempo is a sort of moving average that is used as predictor for measuring the subsequent observed inter-onset- interval resulted in a dynamic measure of timing accuracy, which we called fluctuation error. Since we were also interested in the subjective experience of a musical interaction, we correlated such measure of timing with self-assessment of the performance quality and feeling of joint agency reported by the singers after the performance Figure 5.
Recently, there has been an intense debate about the concept of joint agency. Moreover, we discovered higher correlation for self-annotation than joint agency values with respect to duration errors. Figure 5. The joint agency is strengthened whenever subsequent inter-onset-intervals are correctly predicted by the Bayesian system the singing couple builds up.
In the first experiment, musicality, rather than music, is considered, as long as only the isochronous pulse of the metronome and the entrained beats of the pair tapping on the drumpads constituted the acoustic pattern, hence the proto-musical interaction, as we named it. The embodied character of the musical language is here given by its capacity to coordinate at a micro-timing level the motor actions of the two interacting subjects, despite their lack of musical expertise.
On the other hand, we think we have found another and more interesting timing marker in our study on the quality of hocket singing. Contrary to the other two experiments, the hocket study explicitly investigated also the joint agency parameter, finding a correlation between it and the dynamic marker of the performance timing quality, which further corroborates the view of music as embodied language based on joint agency.
There again, the result of the study on peripersonal space modulation after a jazz interaction may be understood as the effect of a lack of joint agency. This is a clear example of a failed embodied communication that somehow breaks the superordinate system in place whenever a musical ensemble interaction unfolds causing the explosion of the temporary bubble surrounding the musicians, metaphorically speaking, but see Bufacchi and Iannetti, for a criticism of such a metaphor.
To conclude, although the three sensorimotor competences posited by Keller , Keller et al. The feeling of a shared control over a given musical action or the complete unity with one or more conspecifics allowed by a musical performance in the form of rites, ceremonies or simply mother-infant exchanges, constitutes such an important feature of music and musicality as embodied languages that further research is surely needed to disentangle all its complexities.
As we said, while the application of our framework to social contexts seems quite straightforward, its strong version should consider individual interactions with music as well. An example is the following study currently underway in our laboratories. Since in our first experiment we used TMS in order to confirm the sociality of the allocentric condition and in our second experiment we used audio-tactile MSI as a proxy for measuring peripersonal space, in a new study we are combining both methods.
To this aim we are comparing a sample of wind musicians with a sample of non-musicians, insofar as only the former group is expected to show such a form of joint agency marker, due to the specific competence required by the experimental context and, arguably, by the underlying mirror neurons circuits see also above. In other words, the conflation of the auditory and the tactile stimulus might be a function of overlearned expertise, given that for the performer the act of engaging with the trumpet in the first place is necessarily confounded with the sound of that instrument.
To sum up, in this paper we drew on both cognitive musicology and neuroscience to outline a comprehensive framework of musical interaction, taking advantage of several aspects of making music in dyads, from a very basic proto-musical action, like tapping, to more sophisticated contexts, like playing a jazz standard and singing a hocket melody.
Our framework combines insights of embodied and predictive coding approaches, centring around the concept of joint agency. If social interaction is the default mode by which humans communicate with their environment Hari et al. The metaphorical character of the analogy we propose between music and language should encourage, in our opinion, further exploration of the social nature of every kind of interaction with music.
Moreover, it could invite in-depth analysis of aspects other than the pragmatic one we have stressed in the present paper, starting, for example, from the mirror neuron literature about linguistic processes to highlight deeper connections between music and language Rizzolatti and Arbib, ; Arbib, To begin with, given the recent interest of neuroscience in understanding social interaction, we explored some ideas in the research context of joint action, in which embodied and predictive approaches may be better framed together.
We have stressed, then, the embodied and the extended components of embodied cognition, since these may be the main features at the service of a possible integration between the two above-mentioned approaches in the musical domain.
Afterward, the sensorimotor component of the predictive coding paradigm has been highlighted, in that it can be considered as the most naturally close to the embodied framework. A foray into the intensely debated domain of embodied music cognition has been proposed as a necessary step toward the outline of our synthesis, just before a brief overview of the most recent cognitive neuroscience results concerning social musical interaction.
A framework of music as embodied language has been sketched, eventually, which aims at doing justice to the intrinsically interactive nature of musical experience, independently of the real social interaction that could be at stake. Joint agency, the main feature of our account of music as embodied language, is put forward as the conceptual hub around which embodied and predictive approaches may converge.
The main merit of our proposal lies in the attempt to unify different strands of research that have been highly debated in the last twenty years, and apply a new synthesis of them in the domain of music cognition. Again, to conceive of music as an embodied language means to take seriously the current neurobiology in its emphasis on the importance of social interaction in the emergence of human mind and cognition Caccioppo et al.
If this is correct, future research pathways should take into account that the best way to frame music is social interaction, even if we are dealing with apparently neutral features like timbre, rhythm, melodic profile and so on see also McDermott, ; Bryandt, Still, a number of limitations remain in the present work. First of all, what we are presenting is a framework, rather than a model, of music cognition, hence the difficulty of making more circumscribed hypotheses.
In particular, more empirical research is needed to test how far the concept of joint agency can reach, for example, if it can really play a role also in individual interactions with music, as we posit.
Second, a deeper account of the integration of several other aspects of embodied and predictive approaches that we have not discussed here seems possible and desirable. Lastly, though predictive coding has been sometimes presented as compatible with embodied approaches, even by some of its proponents Friston and Frith, ; Koelsch et al.
A great amount of research is needed to complete the picture. The present work aims to be but a drop in this sea, whose boundaries remain unexplored. AD elaborated the theory and wrote the draft of the manuscript.
ML contributed to the elaboration of the theory and revised the manuscript. AB revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
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